{"id":3663,"date":"2022-11-03T00:10:49","date_gmt":"2022-11-02T23:10:49","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/www.projekt-mida.de\/?post_type=reflexicon&p=3663"},"modified":"2022-12-08T16:03:05","modified_gmt":"2022-12-08T15:03:05","slug":"acharya-in-german-archives","status":"publish","type":"reflexicon","link":"https:\/\/www.projekt-mida.de\/en\/reflexicon\/acharya-in-german-archives\/","title":{"rendered":"Passports, Citizenship, and the (Im)possibility of Return: The Indian Revolutionary M. P. T. Acharya in German Archives"},"content":{"rendered":"\n
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By Ole Birk Laursen<\/strong>
Pub\u00adlished in 2022<\/strong>
DOI<\/span> 10.25360\/01\u20132022-00058<\/strong><\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Pho\u00adto: The seg\u00adment of Acharya\u2019s Ger\u00adman res\u00adi\u00addence per\u00admit con\u00adtaint\u00ading his pho\u00adto. For full image and source see Fig. 1<\/strong> below.<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n\n\n\n

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Table of Con\u00adtents<\/strong>
Pas\u00adsage to Exile<\/a>  |  The First World War and the Indi\u00adan-Ger\u00adman Con\u00adspir\u00ada\u00adcy<\/a>  | The Russ\u00adian Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion and State Author\u00adi\u00adtar\u00adi\u00adan\u00adism<\/a>  |  Cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship, Pass\u00adports, and Sedi\u00adtion in Weimar Berlin<\/a>  |  Archival Sources<\/a>  |  Con\u00adclu\u00adsion<\/a>  |  End\u00adnote<\/a>  |  Bib\u00adli\u00adog\u00adra\u00adphy<\/a><\/p>\n\n\n\n

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Through\u00adout his almost twen\u00adty-sev\u00aden years in exile, the Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary Man\u00addayam Pra\u00adti\u00adva\u00addi Bhayankaram Tiru\u00admal \u201cM. P. T.\u201d Acharya (1887\u20131954) trav\u00adelled from India to Britain in 1908, to Por\u00adtu\u00adgal, France, Ger\u00admany, Turkey, and the Unit\u00aded States from 1909 to 1914, to Ger\u00admany, the Mid\u00addle East, and Swe\u00adden dur\u00ading the First World War, and to Rus\u00adsia in 1919. He then spent twelve years in Berlin from 1922 to 1934, before he escaped Nazi Ger\u00admany, liv\u00ading under\u00adground in Switzer\u00adland and France, and final\u00adly returned to India in 1935.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Like so many Asian anti-<\/strong>colo\u00adnial\u00adists of his gen\u00ader\u00ada\u00adtion, Acharya lived an itin\u00ader\u00adant rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary life in exile (Harp\u00ader, 2021: 50\u201351). At a time of great transna\u00adtion\u00adal anti\u00adcolo\u00adnial activ\u00adi\u00adty, through\u00adout war and rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion, the rise of fas\u00adcism and Nazism, to trav\u00adel across sev\u00ader\u00adal con\u00adti\u00adnents and cross\u00ading bor\u00adders was no easy task. This has also made it dif\u00adfi\u00adcult for his\u00adto\u00adri\u00adans to pro\u00advide a com\u00adpre\u00adhen\u00adsive account of Acharya\u2019s life (Sub\u00adra\u00admanyam, 1995). Based on my biog\u00adra\u00adphy of Acharya (Laursen, forth\u00adcom\u00ading), in this essay I reflect on archival traces of this wan\u00adder\u00ading rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary through pass\u00adports and the issue of cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship. As John Tor\u00adpey argues, pass\u00adports have been cen\u00adtral to states\u2019 \u201cabil\u00adi\u00adty to \u2018embrace\u2019 their own sub\u00adjects and to make dis\u00adtinc\u00adtions between nation\u00adals and non-nation\u00adals, and to track the move\u00adments of per\u00adsons in order to sus\u00adtain the bound\u00adary between these two groups (whether at the bor\u00adder or not)\u201d (Tor\u00adpey, 2018: 2). What is more, as Rad\u00adhi\u00adka Mon\u00adgia makes clear in rela\u00adtion to Indi\u00adan migra\u00adtion, exile, and empire, the mod\u00adern pass\u00adport emerged \u201cthrough the artic\u00adu\u00adla\u00adtion of nation, race, and state\u201d and, in doing so, was cru\u00adcial to defin\u00ading these cat\u00ade\u00adgories in the ear\u00adly twen\u00adti\u00adeth cen\u00adtu\u00adry (Mon\u00adgia, 2018: 112).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Dur\u00ading his time in exile, Acharya spent con\u00adsid\u00ader\u00adable time in Ger\u00admany (1910\u20131911, 1922\u20131934) and under Ger\u00adman pro\u00adtec\u00adtion (1914\u20131919), which has left sev\u00ader\u00adal traces of him in the Poli\u00adtis\u00adches Archiv des Ausw\u00e4r\u00adti\u00adgen Amts (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>). In fact, in explor\u00ading his wan\u00adder\u00ading life, it is infor\u00adma\u00adtive to read files from the PA<\/span> AA<\/span> in con\u00adjunc\u00adtion with India Office Records (IOR<\/span>), held in the British Library, Lon\u00addon, files from the Nation\u00adal Archives of India (NAI<\/span>) as well as files from the North Amer\u00adi\u00adcan Records Admin\u00adis\u00adtra\u00adtion (NARA<\/span>) to ful\u00adly under\u00adstand the com\u00adplex\u00adi\u00adties of exiled anti\u00adcolo\u00adnial lives and the (im)possibility of return to India. Indeed, focus\u00ading on the role of pass\u00adports, the files on Acharya in the PA<\/span> AA<\/span> reveal a great deal about the embrace of state author\u00adi\u00adty and cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship as well as, con\u00adverse\u00adly, how they evad\u00aded and sub\u00advert\u00aded the watch\u00adful eyes of colo\u00adnial authorities.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Passage to Exile<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

In Novem\u00adber 1908, fear\u00ading impris\u00adon\u00adment for sedi\u00adtion, Acharya fled India and arrived in win\u00adter-cold Mar\u00adseille, pro\u00adceed\u00ading imme\u00addi\u00adate\u00adly to Paris and, a week lat\u00ader, to Lon\u00addon. In the impe\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal metrop\u00ado\u00adlis, he soon became part of the inner cir\u00adcle of Indi\u00adan nation\u00adal\u00adists at India House and, in August 1909, with fel\u00adlow India House mem\u00adber Sukh Sagar Dutt, ven\u00adtured on a mis\u00adsion to join the Rif anti\u00adcolo\u00adnial strug\u00adgles against the Span\u00adish in Moroc\u00adco (Acharya, Sep 1937: 3). For this, Acharya obtained a British pass\u00adport on 16 August from the India Office in Lon\u00addon and depart\u00aded from Southamp\u00adton on 18 August 1909. Acharya\u2019s British pass\u00adport has since gone miss\u00ading in the IOR<\/span> (IOR<\/span>\/L\/PJ<\/span>\/6\/956, files 3066\u20133070) but been recov\u00adered from the NARA<\/span> (Old Ger\u00adman Files, 1909\u201321, 8000\u20131396, M1085<\/span>). Acharya failed to reach the Rifs and was soon strand\u00aded in Tang\u00adi\u00ader. Mean\u00adwhile, back in India, a war\u00adrant for his arrest was issued in Sep\u00adtem\u00adber 1909 for his involve\u00adment in the nation\u00adal\u00adist paper India<\/em> in 1908 (NAI<\/span>, Home &<\/span> Polit\u00adi\u00adcal, B 1909, Dec 37). This meant that Acharya could not return to India or set foot on British ter\u00adri\u00adto\u00adry again. How\u00adev\u00ader, with a British pass\u00adport in hand, through\u00adout the next two years, Acharya trav\u00adelled to Lis\u00adbon, Paris, Brus\u00adsels, Rot\u00adter\u00addam, and Berlin before he arrived in Munich in the spring of 1911.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In the autumn of 1911, in an act of anti-Euro\u00adpean sol\u00adi\u00addar\u00adi\u00adty, Acharya want\u00aded to join the Tripoli\u00adta\u00adni\u00adans against the Ital\u00adian invaders in Abyssinia. On 25 Octo\u00adber 1911, he obtained per\u00admis\u00adsion to trav\u00adel to Con\u00adstan\u00adtino\u00adple from the Ottoman con\u00adsulate in Munich (NARA<\/span>, Old Ger\u00adman Files, 1909\u201321, 8000\u20131396, M1085<\/span>). Spend\u00ading almost sev\u00aden months in Con\u00adstan\u00adtino\u00adple, noth\u00ading came off his efforts, and in July 1912 he escaped the watch\u00adful British author\u00adi\u00adties and fled for the Unit\u00aded States. His two years in the US<\/span> remain some\u00adwhat obscure: he worked as a farm labour\u00ader and is known to have applied for US<\/span> cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship in 1913, which was denied due to the US<\/span>\u2019s strict anti-Asian immi\u00adgra\u00adtion laws, while also resum\u00ading his rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary activ\u00adi\u00adties and briefly join\u00ading the rad\u00adi\u00adcal anti\u00adcolo\u00adnial Hin\u00addus\u00adtan Asso\u00adci\u00ada\u00adtion of the Pacif\u00adic Coast (Ghadar Par\u00adty), trans\u00adlat\u00ading their paper Ghadr<\/em> into Tamil, as well as the Hin\u00addus\u00adtan Asso\u00adci\u00ada\u00adtion of Amer\u00adi\u00adca in New York, but lit\u00adtle else is known of his life there (Laursen, forthcoming).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The First World War and the Indian-German Conspiracy<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Short\u00adly after the First World War broke out, his old friend Viren\u00addranath Chat\u00adtopad\u00adhyaya (\u2018Chat\u00adto\u2019) set up the Indi\u00adan Inde\u00adpen\u00addence Com\u00admit\u00adtee (IIC<\/span>) in Berlin and, with Ger\u00adman finan\u00adcial and logis\u00adtic back\u00ading, soon recruit\u00aded exiled Indi\u00adans into the com\u00admit\u00adtee.[1]<\/sup><\/a> The PA<\/span> AA<\/span> holds exten\u00adsive files, dig\u00adi\u00adtized and avail\u00adable online, on IIC<\/span>\u2019s activ\u00adi\u00adties and Acharya\u2019s involve\u00adment with the group (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/21070\u201321118 \u2013 Unternehmungen und Aufwiegelun\u00adgen gegen unsere Feinde \u2013 Indi\u00aden). Records show that Acharya arrived in Berlin in Decem\u00adber 1914 on a Per\u00adsian pass\u00adport pro\u00advid\u00aded by the Irish anti\u00adcolo\u00adnial rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary George Free\u00adman (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/21074\u201375). He left his British pass\u00adport behind in New York and sym\u00adbol\u00adi\u00adcal\u00adly turned his back on British cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship (NARA<\/span>, Old Ger\u00adman Files, 1909\u201321, 8000\u20131396, M1085<\/span>). Arriv\u00ading in Berlin on a Per\u00adsian pass\u00adport, how\u00adev\u00ader, soon land\u00aded him in trou\u00adble with the Berlin author\u00adi\u00adties, but the Ausw\u00e4r\u00adtiges Amt<\/em> (AA<\/span>, For\u00adeign Office) inter\u00advened and pro\u00advid\u00aded him with a Ger\u00adman ID<\/span> card (Per\u00adson\u00adalausweis<\/em> \/ PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/21074\u201375).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In ear\u00adly 1915, the IIC<\/span> deployed its first mis\u00adsion to Con\u00adstan\u00adtino\u00adple with the aim to col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adrate with the Ottomans and under\u00adtake mis\u00adsions against the British through\u00adout the Mid\u00addle East. The AA<\/span> pro\u00advid\u00aded the Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies with fake pass\u00adports, trav\u00adel\u00adling as Ger\u00adman East Africans, and Acharya assumed the name \u2018Muham\u00admad Akbar\u2019 (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/21078). Through\u00adout the next two years, Acharya and the Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies trav\u00adelled across the Mid\u00addle East, reach\u00ading Bagh\u00addad, Jerusalem, and the Suez Canal, while sub\u00advert\u00ading the author\u00adi\u00adty of British pass\u00adports and cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship (RZ<\/span> 201\/21070\u2013RZ<\/span> 201\/21118).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

How\u00adev\u00ader, lit\u00adtle came off their efforts, and by ear\u00adly 1917 the IIC<\/span> closed their mis\u00adsion in Con\u00adstan\u00adtino\u00adple. The 1917 Feb\u00adru\u00adary rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion in Rus\u00adsia and Euro\u00adpean social\u00adist attempts to bro\u00adker a peace changed the Indi\u00adans\u2019 per\u00adspec\u00adtives and alliances. In May 1917, trav\u00adel\u00adling on Ger\u00adman Per\u00adson\u00adalausweise<\/em>, Acharya and Chat\u00adto relo\u00adcat\u00aded to Stock\u00adholm to bring the ques\u00adtion of Indi\u00adan inde\u00adpen\u00addence into social\u00adist peace nego\u00adti\u00ada\u00adtions. In oth\u00ader words, they shed their Ger\u00adman East African iden\u00adti\u00adties and, while still sup\u00adport\u00aded by the AA<\/span>, sought new alliances with Euro\u00adpean social\u00adists and oth\u00ader colo\u00adnial and sub\u00adject peo\u00adples (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RAV<\/span> 250\u20131\/474 \u2013 Krieg 1914\u20131917 \u2013 Indi\u00aden \u2013 Indis\u00adches Nation\u00adalkomi\u00adtee in Stock\u00adholm; PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/20519 \u2013 Die inter\u00adna\u00adtionale Sozial\u00adis\u00adtenkon\u00adferenz in Stock\u00adholm, Wien und London).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

They set up the Indi\u00adan Nation\u00adal Com\u00admit\u00adtee and agi\u00adtat\u00aded among Euro\u00adpean social\u00adists. How\u00adev\u00ader, the social democ\u00adrats in the Sec\u00adond Inter\u00adna\u00adtion\u00adal were not sym\u00adpa\u00adthet\u00adic to Acharya and Chatto\u2019s efforts and even accused them of being Ger\u00adman agents. Short\u00adly after the end of the war in Novem\u00adber 1918, they ter\u00admi\u00adnat\u00aded their mis\u00adsion in Stock\u00adholm, but the ques\u00adtion remained: what to do next? Reports to the AA<\/span> reveal that many of the Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies in Stock\u00adholm and Berlin want\u00aded to become Ger\u00adman cit\u00adi\u00adzens, though it appears that none of them did, but they acquired Per\u00adson\u00adalausweise<\/em> and pro\u00adtec\u00adtion by the Ger\u00adman state (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/21117).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Russian Revolution and State Authoritarianism<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

In June 1919, Acharya and a group of Indi\u00adans, includ\u00ading Mahen\u00addra Prat\u00adap and Abdur Rabb, depart\u00aded from Berlin for Moscow with Ger\u00adman assis\u00adtance (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/21118). After meet\u00ading Lenin, the group set off for Afghanistan to exploit anti-British sen\u00adti\u00adments and recruit local Muha\u00adjirs<\/em> into their cam\u00adpaign against the British in India. Through\u00adout the next three years, Acharya set up the Indi\u00adan Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary Asso\u00adci\u00ada\u00adtion (IRA<\/span>) in Kab\u00adul, he attend\u00aded the Sec\u00adond Con\u00adgress of the Com\u00admu\u00adnist Inter\u00adna\u00adtion\u00adal in Pet\u00adro\u00adgrad and Moscow in July 1920 as a del\u00ade\u00adgate of the IRA<\/span>, and with M. N. Roy, Abani Mukher\u00adji, and Muhammed Shafique, he co-found\u00aded the Com\u00admu\u00adnist Par\u00adty of India (CPI<\/span>) in Tashkent in Octo\u00adber 1920. How\u00adev\u00ader, Acharya soon fell out with the dom\u00adi\u00adneer\u00ading Roy and was expelled from the CPI<\/span> in Jan\u00adu\u00adary 1921. Instead, he asso\u00adci\u00adat\u00aded with notable anar\u00adchists, crit\u00adi\u00adcized the Bol\u00adshe\u00adviks, and eked out a liv\u00ading as a jour\u00adnal\u00adist in Moscow, where he met and mar\u00adried the Russ\u00adian artist, Mag\u00adda Nach\u00adman (Laursen, 2020: 241\u2013255; Bern\u00adstein, 2020: 142\u2013159).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Citizenship, Passports, and Sedition in Weimar Berlin<\/h2>\n\n\n\n
\"The
Fig. 1<\/strong> M. P. T. Acharya\u2019s res\u00adi\u00addence per\u00admit, 12 May 1925. PA<\/span> AA<\/span> , RZ<\/span> 207\/78315, Agen\u00adten- und Spi\u00adonagewe\u00adsen \u2013 Orient.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n\n\n\n

By the autumn of 1922, Acharya\u2019s pres\u00adence in Moscow was no longer tol\u00ader\u00adat\u00aded by the Bol\u00adshe\u00advik regime and he had to flee again. In Novem\u00adber 1922, Acharya and Nach\u00adman arrived in Berlin on Russ\u00adian pass\u00adports (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 207\/80558). Once again, Acharya had shed his state-sanc\u00adtioned iden\u00adti\u00adty and pass\u00adport. How\u00adev\u00ader, as Acharya was known to the AA<\/span>, the cou\u00adple eas\u00adi\u00adly acquired per\u00admis\u00adsion to stay in Berlin. By the mid-1920s, the Ger\u00adman cap\u00adi\u00adtal had become a hub for exiled Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies, many of them being alum\u00adni of the IIC<\/span> and com\u00admu\u00adnists such as Roy, caus\u00ading some trou\u00adble for the Ger\u00adman state\u2019s diplo\u00admat\u00adic rela\u00adtions with Britain. Indeed, by late 1924, the two for\u00admer ene\u00admies ini\u00adti\u00adat\u00aded dis\u00adcus\u00adsions about deport\u00ading sev\u00ader\u00adal notable Indi\u00adans from Ger\u00admany, includ\u00ading Acharya, Chat\u00adto, Mukher\u00adji, and Roy, illu\u00admi\u00adnat\u00ading the ten\u00adu\u00adous posi\u00adtion of the exiled Indi\u00adans. In the end, how\u00adev\u00ader, as the Ger\u00admans felt they owed the Indi\u00adans some degree of pro\u00adtec\u00adtion after their col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adra\u00adtion dur\u00ading the First World War and as the British did not want them on the loose in India, the depor\u00adta\u00adtion case was dropped (Barooah, 2018: 12\u201323; IOR<\/span>\/L\/PJ<\/span>\/12\/223; NAI<\/span>, Home &<\/span> Polit\u00adi\u00adcal, NA<\/span> 1925, NA<\/span> F\u2011139\u2011I Kw). At the same time, as files from the PA<\/span> AA<\/span> show, Acharya had his res\u00adi\u00addence per\u00admit extend\u00aded in Ger\u00admany (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> RZ<\/span> 207\/80558; RZ<\/span> 207\/78315).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The depor\u00adta\u00adtion case, how\u00adev\u00ader, prompt\u00aded Acharya to apply for a British pass\u00adport to leave Ger\u00admany (IOR<\/span>). In his appli\u00adca\u00adtion, he stat\u00aded that his pass\u00adport had been stolen from his address in Berlin in 1914 and not that he had left it behind in New York. When the British refused to offer Acharya amnesty for his activ\u00adi\u00adties against Britain dur\u00ading the First World War, he aban\u00addoned the appli\u00adca\u00adtion as return seemed impos\u00adsi\u00adble (IOR<\/span>\/L\/E\/7\/1439).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In 1929, Acharya resumed his pass\u00adport appli\u00adca\u00adtion (IOR<\/span>\/L\/PJ<\/span>\/6\/1968, file 3981). He was not the only one. In the ear\u00adly 1930s, oth\u00ader IIC<\/span> alum\u00adni such as Rishi Kesh Lat\u00adta, L. P. Var\u00adma, Abdur Rah\u00adman Mansur, and A. Raman Pil\u00adlai also want\u00aded to return to India. Like Acharya, how\u00adev\u00ader, they found this dif\u00adfi\u00adcult due to their activ\u00adi\u00adties dur\u00ading the First World War. The PA<\/span> AA<\/span> con\u00adtains files with let\u00adters from these Indi\u00adans, ask\u00ading for finan\u00adcial help to return or even to be able to remain in Ger\u00admany, nego\u00adti\u00adat\u00ading their indi\u00advid\u00adual cas\u00ades with the AA<\/span>, while they await\u00aded the out\u00adcome of their pass\u00adport appli\u00adca\u00adtions (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 207\/78314\u2013315\u2013316).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

With the rise of Nazism in Ger\u00admany, life became more dan\u00adger\u00adous for Indi\u00adans in Berlin. At the same time, in India, the British were crack\u00ading down on the civ\u00adil dis\u00adobe\u00addi\u00adence move\u00adment and arrest\u00aded thou\u00adsands of pro\u00adtest\u00aders, includ\u00ading lead\u00aders such as Gand\u00adhi, Nehru, and Saro\u00adji\u00adni Naidu, Chatto\u2019s sis\u00adter. This made the prospect of return\u00ading to India almost impos\u00adsi\u00adble. Pil\u00adlai, Mansur, and Var\u00adma man\u00adaged to return to India, while Lat\u00adta hes\u00adi\u00adtat\u00aded and went to Teheran, where he died short\u00adly after (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 207\/78314\u2013315\u2013316).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

In ear\u00adly 1934, the British final\u00adly grant\u00aded amnesty to Acharya and pro\u00advid\u00aded him and Nach\u00adman with British pass\u00adports valid for trav\u00adel to India on the con\u00addi\u00adtion that he would refrain from polit\u00adi\u00adcal activ\u00adi\u00adty (IOR<\/span>\/L\/PJ<\/span>\/6\/1968, file 3981). With trav\u00adel mon\u00adey pro\u00advid\u00aded by the AA<\/span>, Acharya and Nach\u00adman hur\u00adried\u00adly fled Berlin in Feb\u00adru\u00adary 1934 and arrived in Switzer\u00adland, where they stayed with Nachman\u2019s sis\u00adter in Z\u00fcrich. While the AA<\/span> helped Acharya leave, inter\u00adnal cor\u00adre\u00adspon\u00addence in the PA<\/span> AA<\/span> also shows that they did not want Acharya to return to Ger\u00admany (PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 207\/78314\u2013316).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Through\u00adout the fol\u00adlow\u00ading year, Acharya lived clan\u00addes\u00adtine\u00adly in Z\u00fcrich and Paris, with\u00adout legal res\u00adi\u00addence papers, try\u00ading to secure mon\u00adey for a safe pas\u00adsage back to India, where he still feared that he faced the risk of impris\u00adon\u00adment (IOR<\/span>\/L\/PJ<\/span>\/6\/1968, file 3981). He even\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly returned to Bom\u00adbay in April 1935, where Nach\u00adman joined him a year lat\u00ader. A life of wan\u00adder\u00ading was over for Acharya, and while he remained active in the inter\u00adna\u00adtion\u00adal anar\u00adchist move\u00adment, he nev\u00ader went to prison for his polit\u00adi\u00adcal activ\u00adi\u00adties. Nach\u00adman died in Bom\u00adbay on 12 Feb\u00adru\u00adary 1951, and Acharya died impov\u00ader\u00adished on 20 March 1954 (Laursen, 2020: 241\u2013255).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Archival Sources<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

India Office Records, British Library, London, UK<\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

In addi\u00adtion to pass\u00adport appli\u00adca\u00adtions, the IOR<\/span> holds Week\u00adly Reports of the Direc\u00adtor of Crim\u00adi\u00adnal Intel\u00adli\u00adgence, who was respon\u00adsi\u00adble for track\u00ading the activ\u00adi\u00adties and move\u00adments of Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies with\u00adin India and abroad. The pass\u00adport appli\u00adca\u00adtions usu\u00adal\u00adly con\u00adtain His\u00adto\u00adry Sheets of the appli\u00adcants as well as cor\u00adre\u00adspon\u00addence regard\u00ading the application.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

National Archives of India, New Delhi, India<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

Many of the files from the IOR<\/span> are also held in the NAI<\/span> and avail\u00adable online at https:\/\/www.abhilekh-patal.in\/<\/a>. These include files on Acharya\u2019s arrest war\u00adrant, his trav\u00adels to Moroc\u00adco, pass\u00adport appli\u00adca\u00adtions, and the 1924 depor\u00adta\u00adtion case against Indi\u00adans in Germany.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

North American Records Administration, Maryland, USA<\/span><\/h3>\n\n\n\n

The NARA<\/span> holds files from the Bureau of Inves\u00adti\u00adga\u00adtion, the pre\u00adcur\u00adsor to the FBI<\/span>, on the activ\u00adi\u00adties of Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies in North Amer\u00adi\u00adca. The Old Ger\u00adman files (1909\u20131921) cov\u00ader the peri\u00adod before, dur\u00ading, and after the First World War, includ\u00ading mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal on the Ghadar Par\u00adty and the Indi\u00adan-Ger\u00adman con\u00adspir\u00ada\u00adcy dur\u00ading the war.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

The Political Archive of the Federal Foreign Office (Politisches Archiv des Ausw\u00e4rtigen Amts), Berlin, Germany<\/h3>\n\n\n\n

The PA<\/span> AA<\/span> holds exten\u00adsive archival mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal on the activ\u00adi\u00adties and move\u00adments of Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies in exile dur\u00ading and after the First World War. The most sig\u00adnif\u00adi\u00adcant are the dig\u00adi\u00adtized files per\u00adtain\u00ading to the IIC<\/span> and First World War (RZ<\/span> 201\/21070\u201321118 \u2013 Unternehmungen und Aufwiegelun\u00adgen gegen unsere Feinde \u2013 Indi\u00aden), which also includes files on Indi\u00adan sol\u00addiers held in Ger\u00adman pris\u00adon\u00ader-of-war-camps (RZ<\/span> 201\/21244 \u2013 Unternehmungen und Aufwiegelun\u00adgen gegen unsere Feinde \u2013 T\u00e4tigkeit in den Gefan\u00adgenen\u00adlagern Deutsch\u00adlands) and the Indi\u00adan Nation\u00adal Com\u00admit\u00adtee in Stock\u00adholm (RAV<\/span> 250\u20131\/474 \u2013 Krieg 1914\u20131917 \u2013 Indi\u00aden \u2013 Indis\u00adches Nation\u00adalkomi\u00adtee in Stock\u00adholm; PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, RZ<\/span> 201\/20519 \u2013 Die inter\u00adna\u00adtionale Sozial\u00adis\u00adtenkon\u00adferenz in Stock\u00adholm, Wien und Lon\u00addon). In addi\u00adtion to these, the PA<\/span> AA<\/span> has exten\u00adsive files on the polit\u00adi\u00adcal activ\u00adi\u00adties of Indi\u00adans in Weimar Ger\u00admany, includ\u00ading mate\u00adr\u00adi\u00adal relat\u00ading to pass\u00adports and expul\u00adsions (RZ<\/span> 207\/78314\u2013316 \u2013 Agen\u00adten- und Spi\u00adonagewe\u00adsen \u2013 Ori\u00adent), as well as Indi\u00adan pro\u00adpa\u00adgan\u00adda, press, and social activ\u00adi\u00adties ema\u00adnat\u00ading from Ger\u00admany (RZ<\/span> 207\/77446 \u2013 Jour\u00adnal\u00adis\u00adten, Pres\u00adsev\u00adertreter; RZ<\/span> 207\/77449 \u2013 Pressewe\u00adsen; RZ<\/span> 207\/77461\u2013462 \u2013 Poli\u00adtis\u00adche und kul\u00adturelle Pro\u00adpa\u00adgan\u00adda; RZ<\/span> 207\/77463 \u2013 Vereinswesen).<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Conclusion<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

The files held in the PA<\/span> AA<\/span>, read along\u00adside those in the IOR<\/span>, the NAI<\/span>, and the NARA<\/span>, open a win\u00addow onto the peri\u00adpatet\u00adic lives of many Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies who had col\u00adlab\u00ado\u00adrat\u00aded with the Ger\u00admans dur\u00ading the First World War and end\u00aded up in Berlin in the inter\u00adwar years. In fact, it is nec\u00ades\u00adsary to look beyond the bina\u00adry colo\u00adnial log\u00adic of archival traces \u2013 i.e., IOR<\/span> (Lon\u00addon) and NAI<\/span> (Del\u00adhi) \u2013 and exam\u00adine a wider web of archives to ful\u00adly under\u00adstand the peri\u00adpatet\u00adic life of Acharya. Indeed, as I have demon\u00adstrat\u00aded here, the PA<\/span> AA<\/span> is cru\u00adcial to under\u00adstand\u00ading such rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary lives. By focus\u00ading on pass\u00adports, a state-autho\u00adrised doc\u00adu\u00adment issued to reg\u00adu\u00adlate and embrace indi\u00advid\u00adu\u00adals\u2019 cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship and move\u00adments, the archives illu\u00admi\u00adnate both the ways in which Indi\u00adan rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies sub\u00advert\u00aded the colo\u00adnial legal appa\u00adra\u00adtus through their trav\u00adels as well as the dif\u00adfi\u00adcul\u00adties for them to return to India. Acharya\u2019s many pass\u00adports reveal a great deal about the ephemer\u00adal stan\u00addard of state-autho\u00adrised doc\u00adu\u00adments in the ear\u00adly twen\u00adti\u00adeth cen\u00adtu\u00adry which, how\u00adev\u00ader, even\u00adtu\u00adal\u00adly land\u00aded him in trou\u00adble with the author\u00adi\u00adties he was try\u00ading to evade when he want\u00aded to return to India. At the same time, it also becomes clear that, despite being state-autho\u00adrised doc\u00adu\u00adments, rival states con\u00adtributed to sub\u00advert\u00ading the author\u00adi\u00adty of these doc\u00adu\u00adments by, at times, pro\u00advid\u00ading fake pass\u00adports and offer\u00ading hos\u00adpi\u00adtal\u00adi\u00adty to exiled rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies. How\u00adev\u00ader, as is evi\u00addent from Acharya\u2019s case, this hos\u00adpi\u00adtal\u00adi\u00adty was con\u00adtin\u00adgent and relied on the Ger\u00adman state\u2019s embrace of its cit\u00adi\u00adzens, which ulti\u00admate\u00adly was pred\u00adi\u00adcat\u00aded on exclu\u00adsion from as much as inclu\u00adsion with\u00adin its bor\u00adders along the lines of race, eth\u00adnic\u00adi\u00adty, and nationality.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Endnote<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

[1]<\/a> See Heike Liebau\u2019s entry on the Indi\u00adan Inde\u00adpen\u00addence Com\u00admit\u00adtee: Liebau, Heike, \u201c\u2018Under\u00adtak\u00adings and Insti\u00adga\u00adtions\u2019: The Berlin Indi\u00adan Inde\u00adpen\u00addence Com\u00admit\u00adtee in the Files of the Polit\u00adi\u00adcal Archive of the Fed\u00ader\u00adal For\u00adeign Office (1914\u20131920)\u201d. MIDA<\/span> Archival Reflex\u00adi\u00adcon <\/em>(2022): 10 pp, https:\/\/www.projekt-mida.de\/rechercheportal\/reflexicon\/<\/a>, DOI<\/span>: 10.25360\/01\u20132022-00048, or the article\u2019s orig\u00adi\u00adnal Ger\u00adman ver\u00adsion: Liebau, Heike, \u201c\u201aUnternehmungen und Aufwiegelun\u00adgen\u2018: Das Berlin\u00ader Indis\u00adche Unab\u00adh\u00e4ngigkeit\u00adskomi\u00adtee in den Akten des Poli\u00adtis\u00adchen Archivs des Ausw\u00e4r\u00adti\u00adgen Amts (1914\u20131920)\u201d. MIDA<\/span> Archival Reflex\u00adi\u00adcon<\/em> (2019): 11 pp, https:\/\/www.projekt-mida.de\/rechercheportal\/reflexicon\/<\/a>, DOI<\/span>: 10.25360\/01\u20132022-00007.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bibliography<\/h2>\n\n\n\n

Acharya, M. P. T., \u201cRem\u00adi\u00adnis\u00adcences of a Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary\u201d, The Mahrat\u00adta<\/em> (July\u2013October 1937)<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Acharya, M. P. T., Ole Birk Laursen (ed.), We Are Anar\u00adchists: Essays on Anar\u00adchism, Paci\u00adfism, and the Indi\u00adan Inde\u00adpen\u00addence Move\u00adment, 1923\u20131953<\/em>. Edin\u00adburgh: AK<\/span> Press, 2019.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Barooah, Nirode K., Ger\u00admany and the Indi\u00adans Between the Wars<\/em>. Norder\u00adst\u00adedt: Books on Demand, 2018.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Bern\u00adstein, Lina, Mag\u00adda Nach\u00adman: An Artist in Exile<\/em>. Boston: Aca\u00add\u00ade\u00adm\u00adic Stud\u00adies Press, 2020.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Harp\u00ader, Tim, Under\u00adground Asia: Glob\u00adal Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adar\u00adies and the Assault on Empire<\/em>. Lon\u00addon: Pen\u00adguin Books, 2020.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Laursen, Ole Birk, \u201cAnar\u00adchism, pure and sim\u00adple: M. P. T. Acharya and the Inter\u00adna\u00adtion\u00adal Anar\u00adchist Move\u00adment\u201d. Post\u00adcolo\u00adnial Stud\u00adies<\/em> 23, 3 (2020): pp. 241\u2013255.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

\u2014\u2014\u2013, Anar\u00adchy or Chaos: M. P. T. Acharya and the Indi\u00adan Strug\u00adgle for Free\u00addom<\/em>. Lon\u00addon: Hurst Pub\u00adlish\u00ader, forth\u00adcom\u00ading 2023.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Mon\u00adgia, Rad\u00adhi\u00adka, Indi\u00adan Migra\u00adtion and Empire: A Colo\u00adnial Geneal\u00ado\u00adgy of the Mod\u00adern State<\/em>. Durham: Duke Uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty Press, 2018.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Sub\u00adra\u00adma\u00adni\u00adam, C. S., M. P. T. Acharya: His Life and Times: Rev\u00ado\u00adlu\u00adtion\u00adary Trends in the Ear\u00adly Anti-Impe\u00adri\u00adal\u00adist Move\u00adments in South India and Abroad<\/em>. Madras: Insti\u00adtute of South Indi\u00adan Stud\u00adies, 1995.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Tor\u00adpey, John C., The Inven\u00adtion of the Pass\u00adport: Sur\u00adveil\u00adlance, Cit\u00adi\u00adzen\u00adship, and the State<\/em>. Cam\u00adbridge: Cam\u00adbridge Uni\u00adver\u00adsi\u00adty Press, 2018.<\/p>\n\n\n\n

Ole Birk Laursen, Leib\u00adniz-Zen\u00adtrum Mod\u00adern\u00ader Ori\u00adent, Berlin<\/em><\/strong><\/p>\n\n\n\n

\n
<\/div>\n\n\n\n

MIDA<\/span> Archival Reflex\u00adi\u00adcon<\/strong>

Edi\u00adtors: Anan\u00addi\u00adta Baj\u00adpai, Heike Liebau<\/strong>
Lay\u00adout: Mon\u00adja Hof\u00admann, Nico Putz<\/strong>
Host: ZMO<\/span>, Kirch\u00adweg 33, 14129 Berlin<\/strong>
Con\u00adtact: archival.reflexicon [at] zmo.de<\/strong>

ISSN<\/span> 2628\u20135029<\/p>\n<\/div><\/div>\n","protected":false},"featured_media":3666,"template":"","categories":[54],"tags":[88,98,96],"class_list":["post-3663","reflexicon","type-reflexicon","status-publish","has-post-thumbnail","hentry","category-reflexicon","tag-erster-weltkrieg","tag-geschichte-der-kommunistischen-bewegung-in-indien","tag-geschichte-der-unabhaengigkeitsbewegung"],"acf":[],"yoast_head":"\nPassports, Citizenship, and the (Im)possibility of Return: The Indian Revolutionary M. P. T. Acharya in German Archives - MIDA<\/title>\n<meta name=\"description\" content=\"Ole Laursen delves into the life (on the run) of the anti-colonial leftist activist M. P. T. 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